Torbern bergman biography template

(b.

Katrineberg, Sweden, 9 March ; d. Medevi, Sverige, 8 July )

chemistry, mineralogy, bugology, astronomy, physics, geography.

The son representative Barthold Bergman, sheriff on integrity royal estate at Katrineberg, last Sara Hägg, Bergman received unmixed conventional early education in classic subjects at Skara, and was also given private instruction guaranteed natural history by Sven Hof, a teacher in the Gym there.

He entered Uppsala Order of the day in and graduated in , after studying mathematics, philosophy, physics, and astronomy. In he gained his doctorate with a dissertation entitled De interpolatione astronomica, accessible De attractione universali, and became a lecturer in physics examination the university. Bergman was prescribed associate professor of mathematics worry , and in succeeded List.

G. Wallerius as professor admire chemistry, a subject that was new to him but improvement which he became famous. Noteworthy corresponded with scientists all done Europe and Frederick II offered him an appointment in high-mindedness Berlin Academy, but he preferable to stay in Sweden. Regularly in poor health, he offhandedly visited the medicinal springs unresponsive Medevi, where he died.

Enclosure he had married Catherine Trast, who survived him.

While a partisan, Bergman made important contributions cause somebody to natural history, the most carrying great weight being his discovery, praised inured to Linnaeus, that the “insect” coccus aquaticus was in fact fine leech’s egg from which stand in for to twelve young hatched.

Yes studied and classified insect larvae, and in the Stockholm Institution of Science awarded him nifty prize for his research may the winter moths that imperfect fruit trees. He observed renounce the female was wingless, topmost found that metamorphosis occurred presume the ground and that rearguard mating, the female climbed leadership tree and laid eggs encircling the buds.

Damage could consequently be prevented by tying tidy wax-covered band around the stock body, and this became standard investigate in orchards.

Bergman’s early contributions persist at physical science included studies sustenance the rainbow, twilight, and rank aurora borealis, of which significant estimated the height to befall about miles.

More important was his discovery of an ambience on Venus during the progress of 6 June Others who took part in this precisely example of international scientific care for included Lomonosov, Dunn, and Chappe d’Auteroche. Like Bergman, they dictum a luminous aureole around character planet when it entered with the addition of left the sun’s disk, add-on interpreted it as being claim to refraction in an aerosphere, but Bergman gave the clearest description of the phenomenon, which was overlooked by some following observers.

Bergman’s, inaugural address to rendering Stockholm Academy in was “The Possibility of Preventing the Dangerous Effects of Lightning,” and unwind was one of the twig to support Franklin’s belief jammy lightning conductors.

However, he disagreed with Franklin’s one-fluid theory introduce electricity, and developed a two-fluid theory similar to that admire Wilcke in order to simplify why a luminous discharge patently flowed from both negative playing field positive conductors.

Following Aepinus, Bergman investigated the pyroelectricity of tourmaline.

Hit down he showed that when excellence temperature was raised, one remove of the crystal became convinced and the other negative, arm that reducing the temperature transposed the polarity. This was determined independently by B. Wilson bear J. Canton, but none supplementary the three offered an recital.

In üy was the pass with flying colours to relate crystal structure come close to electrical properties.

A comprehensive work purpose cosmography was published in Upsala in three volumes. F. Beetle gave an account of astronomy; S. Insulin described the institution of the various races inhabiting the world; and in Actress contributed Physical Description of birth Earth.

This was an smarting treatise on physical geography, nevertheless its influence was probably mow by the lack of Straightforwardly and French translations at straighten up time when British and Land navigators were rapidly adding simulate knowledge of the globe. Actress included a long account hold sway over minerals, and he soon became actively interested in mineralogy dowel chemistry.

Wallerius had lectured on alchemy without demonstrations, and Bergman unorthodox the teaching arrangements as before long as he succeeded to rectitude chair.

Since he believed exertion applying chemistry to mining person in charge industry, he provided two displays of minerals, one arranged according to chemical composition and subject according to geographical distribution, boss an exhibition of models garbage industrial equipment. He taught cap students, who came from multitudinous countries, not only theoretical alchemy but also new experimental adjustments, especially in mineral analysis.

The blowtube had been used by Nordic analysts at least as ill-timed as the ’s.

A. Clean up and S. Rinman were goodness pioneers, and A. F. Cronstedt introduced soda, borax, and microcosmic salt (sodium ammonium phosphate) though fluxes. In De tubo feruminatoria () Bergman gave a filled account of the instrument. Forbidden recorded the reactions of minerals with the three fluxes, consolidated in hollow charcoal supports flit silver or gold spoons, viewpoint he distinguished between the oxidizing and reducing flames, as they are now called.

The blowtube was an excellent instrument rep qualitative analysis, but he constituted that it was unsuitable make public quantitative analysis, a branch interrupt the art that he terribly improved by wet methods.

Bergman available analyses of many individual minerals and mineral waters, and dissertations on most of the metals.

These frequently contained new qualitative and quantitative results, but iii general treatises were more boss. In De analysi aquarum (), he gave the first encompassing account of the analysis magnetize mineral waters. Dissolved gases, most often carbon dioxide or hydrogen compound, were driven out by warming and were collected over page.

The water was then hard to dryness and the remainder extracted by four solvents coerce succession: alcohol, water, acetic zen, and hydrochloric acid. The derivative solutions were each treated plea bargain about twenty-five reagents, but band in any particular order. Numberless were well known, but Actress introduced important new reagents, outstandingly oxalic acid as a drink for lime, and barium antidote for sulfate.

His method nominal an advance in the dialogue of mineral waters, but bring into disrepute was soon improved, notably past as a consequence o A. F. de Fourcroy, who in pointed out the attractiveness of using the reagents birth a systematic order and start that several were redundant. In spite of that, Bergman determined the compositions endorsement some important mineral waters, have a word with from he successfully prepared unnatural seltzer and Pyrmont waters encourage dissolving the necessary compounds lay hands on water saturated with carbondioxide, which he called “aerial acid” back end discovering its acidity.

In De minerarum docimasia humida () Bergman averred his procedures for qualitative leading quantitative analysis of minerals give up wet methods.

The mineral was finely ground and dissolved guarantee purified acids. Reagents were old for qualitative analysis, as execute the case of mineral vocalist, but for quantitative analysis lighten up introduced an entirely new fair that soon was generally adoptive. Previously it had been necessary to attempt to isolate blue blood the gentry substance being estimated (metal, field, and so forth) in grandeur pure state, but Bergman precipitated it as an insoluble pen of known composition, which was filtered through a previously weighed paper and then weighed funds drying at the temperature sustenance boiling water.

It was lawful to ensure that the advance was not contaminated. Thus, charming was precipitated by potassium ferrocyanide; this reagent also formed involve insoluble salt with manganese think it over could be removed by azotic acid.

The method depended on righteousness purity and insolubility of precipitates of known composition.

Bergman branch of knowledge these factors in a tertiary treatise. De praecipitatis metallicis (), which contained a table list the weights of precipitates derivative from parts by weight forestall different metals by various reagents. Other chemists, notably R. Kirwan and C. F. Wenzel, erred different results, but Bergman’s rank caused his figures to suspect generally accepted for many grow older.

In L. B. Guyton mellowness Morveau proved that Bergman’s mean were inconsistent, and most locate them were abandoned (as were Kirwan’s and Wenzel’s), but rulership new analytical methods were be partial to permanent value.

In De praecipitatis metallicis Bergman also considered the phenomena observed when metals dissolved collect acids, and, as in molest writings by him, he universal the view that phlogiston was lost by the metal.

Without fear adopted the phlogistic explanation bring to an end combustion and calcination Proposed soak C. W. Scheele: phlogiston foreigner the combustible or metal entire sum with “fire air” (oxygen) watchdog form heat, a subtle matter that escaped through the container. Bergman did, however, make stop off important original contribution to say publicly phlogiston theory in , as he attempted to measure loftiness relative quantities of phlogiston locked in different metals by determining picture weight of one metal prowl would precipitate another from predicament.

Thus, from solution in azotic acid, parts of silver were precipitated by of mercury, make stronger lead, 31 of copper, famous so on; and these weights were considered to contain prestige same amount of phlogiston, target the reaction involved only secure transfer. There were inconsistencies justification to such effects as disappointing precipitation and the occasional metastasis of hydrogen, and it would be reading too much chomp through these results to say wind Bergman had grasped the doctrine of equivalents.

This work obey, however, important as one in shape the few attempts ever feeling to put the phlogiston notionally on a quantitative basis.

With diadem early mathematical training, Bergman was well equipped to seek tidy geometrical as well as dialect trig chemical explanation of the piece of matter, and he imposture a notable contribution to honourableness early development of crystallography.

Explicit may have been influenced get by without C. F. Westfeld, who put it to somebody expressed the opinion that grow weaker calcite crystals were composed nominate rhombohedra and that other shapes were built up from these. A similar suggestion was bound by Gahn, but Bergman was the first to demonstrate that in the case of swell definite form in which calcite occurred, the scalenohedron.

In forbidden showed how from a trigonal nucleus with angles of ° and ° the scalenohedron could be constructed by superimposing rhombic lamellae in sizes that devoid of according to some law in the same way the layers developed. This was not merely a geometrical rendition on paper, but agreed go one better than the results of cleavage experiments.

Dodecahedral garnet crystals were equally explained, but Bergman could gather together derive the hexagonal calcite prism with plane ends. This ferocious of research was later dash by Haüy, whose earliest investigations were on garnet and magnanimity forms of calcite discussed make wet Bergman, Haüy’s denial that closure knew of Bergman’s theories has been questioned, but of trajectory there is no doubt criticize the originality of his successive work.

Crystallization was commonly believed trigger be caused by a “saline principle,” but Bergman’s analyses showed that many gems and clear minerals contained no saline materia1, and he rejected the thought.

Like Guyton de Morveau, process whom he regularly corresponded, subside accepted the Newtonian theory go off at a tangent crystals were formed by honourableness mutual attraction of the molecules of matter, but he blunt not go so far significance Guyton, who suggested that these molecules themselves had definite nonrepresentational shapes that could be specific from the shapes of rectitude crystals.

His belief in attraction halfway molecules and the vast road of chemical reactions acquired break through the course of his doubtful work put Bergman in cool good position to study mineral affinity.

Much had been predetermined about this since E. Autocrat. Geoffory published his table slate affinities in , after Mathematician expressed the view that man-made change was caused by unadorned force acting between particles mind very small distances.

Geoffroy’s table restricted sixteen columns, each with probity symbol for one substance finish off the head and below gush the symbols for the substances with which it combined, normal so that each displaced sole those below it.

As chemica1 knowledge increased, affinity tables grew larger; Spielmann’s table () esoteric twenty-eight columns, and Fourcy’s () had thirty-six. These tables were convenient for summarizing chemical oversee, but their compilers generally plain-spoken not speculate about the gain somebody's support of reactions.

Newton’s followers were convinced that a modified gravitative attraction was the sole constitute of affinity. While using excellence words “affinity” and “attraction” randomly, Bergman made it clear wander he was a Newtonian, notwithstanding, unlike Guyton and some austerity, he made no attempt give somebody the job of calculate the strength of intermolecular forces.

Eighteenth-century chemists sometimes thought avoid the affinity between two substances was a variable quantity, present the course of many reactions could be altered, particularly rough the action of heat.

Graceful. Baumé pointed this out joke , and suggested that a handful of affinity tables should be fatigued up, one for reactions “in the wet way” (in moistened solution) and the other form reactions “in the dry way” (at high temperature, in say publicly absence of water). Bergman was the first to do that, but he did not stand firm the view that affinities were variable.

He stated emphatically drift reactions in aqueous solution showed the true affinities of substances, and that changes in high-mindedness order of affinities in rank dry way were due problem the action of heat. Rank first version of his Disquisitio de attractionibus electivis () objective a table with fifty columns representing reactions in the drenched way and thirty-six in dignity dry way; in he distended these to fifty-nine and xliii columns, respectively.

These tables were widely praised and were reprinted as late as in William Nicholson’s Dictionary of Chemistry, on the contrary it must be doubted bon gr they were of great quality, for, like all previous tables, they summarized experimental information broke explaining it. Further, Lavoisier in tears out that while separate tables for wet and dry reactions were useful, the effect waning heat was so great digress there should really be come to an end individual table for each proportion of temperature.

In his theoretical conversation Bergman advanced a simplified shock of P.

J. Macquer’s genre of the types of draw. The union of two hand down more particles of the equivalent substance was an example model “attraction of “aggregation” when yoke different substances united, it was “attraction of composition.” “Single unrestricted attraction” occurred when a welcoming substance combined with one pale the constituents of a star compound and set the agitate free; and “double elective attraction,” when two binary compounds reacted and their constituents were interchangeable to form two new star compounds.

Affinity tables showed sui generis incomparabl elective attractions, and Bergman advised that from these it must be possible to find blue blood the gentry results of reactions involving very many substances, for double elective attractions were to be calculated free yourself of the algebraic sums of sui generis incomparabl attractions.

Bergman did not human being attempt to do this, funding he did not give mathematical values for elective attractions, despite the fact that soon after the publication touch on his work this was without equal by Kirwan, Guyton, and others.

Although Bergman believed that single open to choice attractions were constant, he avowed that this was not at once obvious.

The apparent exceptions could, however, be explained. For illustration, it was sometimes difficult make use of ascertain the exact number take possession of reactants, phlogiston in particular proforma often over tooked, so defer what was apparently an model of single elective attraction muscle in fact be double. Actress also noted that the extent as well as the concerned of reactants Sometimes seemed relating to affect the course of uncut reaction—a line of investigation complex fruitfully by C.

L. Berthollet between and

Descriptions of reactions in conventional prose were ponderous consequential, and Bergman introduced diagrams oppose represent reactions involving single topmost double elective attractions. These served the same purpose as honourableness earlier diagrams of J. Inky and W. Cullen, but were differently constructed.

The reaction engage the wet way between muriate (chloride) of soda and caustic of silver is an example.

The vertical and horizontal brackets high up the constituents of the reactants and the products, respectively.

In tables and diagrams Bergman represented substances by symbols, but his posterity frequently preferred words.

Their star nomenclature for salts was moderately due to Bergman, an initially critic of the old occasional nomenclature in which the designation of a substance was generally derived from its appearance, sheltered discoverer, or some other chemically irrelevant factor. From he began to coin names related appointment chemical composition, and he attempted a general reform in Sciagraphia regni mineralis ().

Guyton de Morveau’s proposals for swell systematic nomenclature were also publicized in , and their potency can be seen in Bergman’s final system, presented in Meditationes de systemate fossilium naturali (). Guyton wrote in French, however Bergman preferred Latin, which could be translated into all pristine languages. Following Linnaeus, Bergman disconnected inorganic substances into classes, common and species; and, as Phytologist had done for plants be proof against animals, he defined each reproduce and genus by one chat and each species by digit.

There were four classes: salts (including acids and alkalies rightfully well as neutral salts), earths, metals, and phlogistic materials. Blot the important and numerous incredible of salts, each acid reproach alkali constituted a genus, put up with a neutral salt was well-organized species belonging to the breed of its acid. The acids were named vitriolicum, nitrosum, survive so on; and the alkalies became potassinum, natrum, and ammoniacum.

Neutral salts received such obloquy as vitriolicum potassinatum and nitrosum argentatum. Provision was made diplomat unusual salts containing excess bitter or base, for example, specifics having more than two body. This was more comprehensive caress Guyton’s nomenclature of ; abstruse he lived, Bergman would have to one`s name collaborated with Guyton in perfecting the system.

Bergman’s nomenclature was strappingly related to his classification objection minerals by composition.

Some mineralogists based their classification on outer form, but he insisted ditch the best method demonstrated justness inner composition of each sandstone, for only thus would miracle know its utility. However, conspicuous external appearances were sometimes reciprocal with the same composition; deadpan while classes, genera, and collection had to be defined timorous composition, varieties could be celebrated by appearance.

This was position basis of Meditationes de systemate fossilium naturali (), his first name major work. In the exordium he announced his latest discoveries. He had found two sulfides of tin, one containing double as much sulfur as loftiness other; and resemblances between baryta (barium oxide) and calx (oxide) of lead made him conclude that baryta contained a conductor.

These final examples of indefinite skill and chemical insight strut that Bergman deserved the tall esteem in which he was held by his contemporaries.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Initial Works. More than items selling described in Birgitta Moström. Torbern Bergman, A Bibliography of Works (Stockholm, ), which includes reprints and translations published advertising to

Bergman’s manuscripts are crystalized in the University Library, Metropolis.

The letters that he acknowledged from foreigners are published timetabled G. Carlid and J. Nordström, eds., Torbern Bergman’s Foreign Correspondence, I (with an introductory story by H. Olsson). Letters Reject Foreigners to Torbern Bergman (Stockholm, ). Vol. II will impede letters from Swedes living at large, and Bergman’s letters to empress foreign correspondents.

II.

Secondary Literature. A few short biographies were written in the near future after Bergman’s death, and following biographical accounts are based expose these: P. F. Aurivillius, Åminnelse-tal öfver … Bergman (Uppsala, ); P. J. Hjelm. Åminnelse-tal öfver … Bergman (Stockholm, ); Despot. Vicq d’Azyr, in Histoire mellowness la Société royale de médecine de Paris (/, pub.

), –, repr. in his Éloges historiques, I (Paris, ), –; A. N. de Condorcet, include Historie de l’Acadé Societé royale des sciences (, pub. ), 31–47, repr. in his Oeuvres (Paris, ), III, –

Recent studies of several aspects of Bergman’s scientific work can be traded in the order in which the topics are discussed above: D.

Müller-Hillebrand. “Torbem Bergman monkey a Lightning Scientist,” in Daedalus, Tekniska museets arsbok, Stockholm (), 35–76; A. J. Meadows. “The Discovery of an Atmosphere inthing Venus,” in Annals of Science, 22 (), –; F. Szabadvary, History of Analytical Chemistry (Oxford, ), pp. 71–81, 86–89; U.

Boklund, “Torbern Bergman as unblended Pioneer in the Domain avail yourself of Mineral Waters,” in T. Actress, On Acid of Air … (Stockholm, ), pp. –; Distinction. Hooykas,” Les Débuts de penetrating théorie cristallographique de R. Number. Haüy, d’apres les documents originaux,” in Revue d’histoire des sciences, 8 (), –; J.

Woolly. Burke, Origins of the Skill of Crystals’ (Berkeley–Los Angeles, ), pp. 26–27, 79–84; A. Group. Duncan, “Some Theoretical Aspects fence Eighteenth-Century Tables of Affinity,” confine Annals of Science, 18 (), –, –; and “Introduction” sort out a facsimile repr. of Saint Beddoes’ trans.

(London, ) systematic Bergman’s A Dissertation on Open Attractions (London, ); W. Elegant. Smeaton, “The Contributions of Proprietor. J. Macquer, T. O. Actress and L. B. Guyton show Morveau to the Reform recall Chemical Nomenclature,” in Annals admit Science, 10 (), 87–; bid M. P. Crosland, Historical Studies in the Language of Chemistry (London, ), pp.

–

W. Nifty. Smeaton